Female reproductive system

 The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in the reproduction of new offspring. The human female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a fetus to full term. The internal sex organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The female reproductive tract includes the vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes and is prone to infections.^[1] The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and childbirth, and is connected to the uterus at the cervix. The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo, which develops into the fetus. The uterus also produces secretions, which help the transit of sperm to the fallopian tubes, where sperm fertilize ova (egg cells) produced by the ovaries. The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening.^[2]

Respiration

 

1 .The respiratory center consists of a medullary respiratory center in the medulla and a pontine respirator group in the pons.

2. The medullary respiratory center in the medulla is made up of a dorsal respiratory group (DRG), which controls normal quiet breathing, and a ventral respiratory group (VRG), which is used during forceful breathing and controls the rhythm of breathing.

3. The pontine respiratory group in the pons may modify the rhythm of breathing during exercise, speaking,and sleep.

4. The activity of the respiratory center can be modified in response to inputs from various parts of the body in order to maintain the homeostasis of breathing.

5. These include cortical influences; the inflation reflex; chemical stimuli, such as O2 and CO2 and H_levels; proprioceptor input; blood pressure changes; limbic system stimulation; temperature; pain; and irritation to the airways.

 

 

1 .The respiratory center consists of a medullary respiratory center in the medulla and a pontine respirator group in the pons.

2. The medullary respiratory center in the medulla is made up of a dorsal respiratory group (DRG), which controls normal quiet breathing, and a ventral respiratory group (VRG), which is used during forceful breathing and controls the rhythm of breathing.

3. The pontine respiratory group in the pons may modify the rhythm of breathing during exercise, speaking,and sleep.

4. The activity of the respiratory center can be modified in response to inputs from various parts of the body in order to maintain the homeostasis of breathing.

5. These include cortical influences; the inflation reflex; chemical stimuli, such as O2 and CO2 and H_levels; proprioceptor input; blood pressure changes; limbic system stimulation; temperature; pain; and irritation to the airways.

 

 PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS=====

Diagnostic value—To evaluatefor the presence or severity of lung disease and to measurethe extent of pulmonary impairment so that the effectivenessof therapy can be monitored.

Procedure====All pfts involve a spirometer,and measurements are recorded on a spirogram.The tests may be performed at bedside,orin alaboratory.After a noseclip is applied to stop air movementthrough the nose,the subject breathes into a mouthpiece that is connected to the testing apparatus.The more frequently ordered tests are

1—Forced vital capacity(FVC)

4

2---Forced expiratory volume in onesecond(FEV1)

3---Maximum Mid expiratory flow (MMEF)

4----Maximum voluntary ventilation(MVV)

Detection of specific gravity

Detection of specific gravity

Principle---Specific gravity of urine depends upon the solute present in the urine.When solutes increases ,specific gravity of urine also increases.

Specific gravity is the density of substance ,which is compaired to density of water. Density of water is 1.

Specific gravity of normal urine is—1.012 to 1.025.

Urinometer is used to measure specific gravity of urine.

Parts of Urinometer---1) Stem---is elongated & graduated.

2) Base –is rounded and heavy.                     

Graduation on stem is1.000 at the top & 1.060 at the bottom .

Procedure---Take 20 ml of urine in vertical cylinder.Take another cylinder & fill it with distilled water.Now hold the urinometer with its stem & gently release the urinometer in the cylinder containing distilled water.Let the urinometer float and become stable.When it becomes stable measure the specific gravity of distilled water.----which is 1.

Now hold the urinometer at the top & slowly release the urinometer in the cylyndercontaining urine.Urinometer should float in the urine & should not touch the sides of cylinder.When urinometer becomes  steady then take the reading of specific gravity from the graduations on the stem.Take reading of the lower curvature of the fluid.

Keep the urinometer clean with fresh water and dry it with tissue paper.

Urinometer

URINOMETER
This urinometer is composed of a float, a weight, and a stem. The float is an air-filled glass tube, ending in the weight on the left and the stem on the right. The weight is a bulb filled with ball bearings embedded in a red solid, probably a glue of some sort. The glass stem extends to the right, and has (calibrated) gradations and numbers marked off to indicate specific gravity measurements.
An Urinometer is a simple piece of equipment for determining urine specific gravity.
It is placed in a tube of urine, and where the meniscus of the urine reaches displays the specific gravity of the urine.
An urinometer is typically used in medical diagnostic labs.